Abstract: The text is a reflexion, accompanied by documentary materials, of the „differentness“ of history of nations and inhabitants of Central Europe, who lived through broadly the same events, but who interpret their common history differently. The differences concern every-day life in its ordinary as well as festive aspects. The different histories also play an important role in the social and political life of central Europe, and as such need to be treated not only by social and humanistic science but should also be subject of school curricula. The importance of different interpretations of common history is all the more significant as it is part of a world as lived and experienced by people and many of its social and individual aspects are present subconsciously.The text also informs on the programme of international conferences Differentness of our common history, organized since 2007 in the framework of international cooperation between academic and educational institutions from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary and Slovenia.

Abstract: The essay deals with the relationship between history as science and as a school subject (teaching of history). Although these two areas of modern history culture are closely interlinked, both in topic and in methodology, they pursue different objectives. Both interpret historical reality, but each with a different aim – the true objective of teaching history is to cultivate historical consciousness, whereas the aim of scientific study of history is to reveal the actual course of real events by means of historiographic „self-knowledge“, i.e. through finding the place of the historian in his time and his socio-cultural milieu (as suggested especially by history science in the second half of the past century).

These starting points also influence the choice and interpretation of topics: for example the Marxist concept of history, whose declared hegemon of modern history, the proletariat, has in fact disappeared, its real life having been transformed into an abstract idea of „organized movement“, „party congresses“ etc. Another example might be the failure of the Council of Europe to introduce a uniform periodization of European history, since the suggested periods sometimes proved unacceptable to certain countries; while both Czechs and Slovaks accept 1945 as the end of the war, the same does not apply to the Baltic countries.

Finally, there is also the need to study historical arguments, used in public as a political or other instrument. In other words, the „historical“ (especially national) story of a nation, for a long time seen as a continual story, has in the last few decades changed into a „puzzle“, i.e. into an act of assembling various, often merely plausible, stories. Here lies a potential danger for history as science, but at the same time it is also a unique challenge for history as school subject, which, given that it is based on history consciousness, cannot avoid coming to terms with this „puzzle“, which should also be analyzed by the didactics of history.

Abstract: The study follows the changes in the pantheon of Slovak national heroes throughout the 19^th and 20^th centuries. Both those personalities who took an active part in the struggle for independence and those who suffered for national ideals have become national heroes. Both categories have become binding social examples to be followed by every member of the nation. Given a relative shortage of ethnic national heroes in the first stages of the national movement, personalities of non-Slavic origin were also considered as heroes, but in the course of time the pantheon has been reserved exclusively for native-born Slovaks. Often, this process was accompanied by political instrumentalization of their lives.

Abstract: The study analyzes the creation of the Slovak national narrative („history“) from the second half of the 18^th century onwards. It mostly rested upon national heroes („patriots“, Slovak Národovci) who formulated and embodied the positive elements of the national narrative. The negative side was represented by „national anti-heroes“, i.e. those who were trying to magyarize the society („magyarizators“) as well as those who themselves were magyarized on an individual level („magyarons“). As for the former category, the „magyarizators“, they may or may even not have been ethnic Magyars, while the latter were always of non-Magyar origin. The study provides examples of national anti-heroes, as shaped by the national narrative – they were considered as renegades, traitors of their own nation, who decided to act in the interest of an alien people. It was not only those figures who actually did support the „opposite side“ who were considered as national anti-heroes, but often also those who for various reasons simply did not fit in the national narrative.

Abstract: The study focuses on the process of creation of the Slovak national society in three stages: in the romantic stage from the twenties to the forties of the 19th century, the revolutionary and post-revolutionary stage from 1848/1849 until 1867 and the stage of modernization in 1867–1918. This process was characterized both by features typical of any nationalist movement as well as by certain specific traits: a slight delay in time, incompleteness of social structure, absence of an independent state. All these factors influenced the condition of Slovaks as a nation: they had to struggle for their language, for the recognition of their national territory as well as of the existence of an independent Slovak nation. Due to these circumstances, their struggle sometimes failed to meet the stated objectives. The repeated failures were further worsened by an insufficient adaptation to the changing circumstances and by dwelling on strategies which repeatedly proved as unsuccessful, for a variety of reasons ranging from isolation in a small centre to the idea of one’s uniqueness, often at the cost of elimination of those who did not perceive the national issue as something sacred and fixed and who did not agree to follow unconditionally the national leaders and their strategies. The national programme was thus becoming enclosed and was drafted outside those institutions which were competent to solve political issues. As a consequence, Slovak national leaders in the periods covered had to face not only the pressure exercised by the State, but also the criticism from their own ranks.

Abstract: The study deals with different interpretations of Hungarian history caused by a different spatial perspective. Without taking into consideration the different viewpoints it is in fact impossible to interpret the history of Hungary, not even at a local level. The problem of Slovakia and Slovak history, seen from the post-Hungarian perspective, is all the more complex, as Slovakia never formed an independent administrative unit in the history of Hungary, and the interconnection between modern Slovakia and the „lower Hungary“ was exceptionally tight. The historical burden resulting from this situation is reflected even nowadays in the use or a refusal to use geographical-historical terminology (felvidék, Carpathian basin). The same applies to the nationality of various distinguished figures of Hungarian history, who were often of multi-ethnic origin or non-Hungarian at all.

Abstract: The study, covering the period from the beginning of our era until the 20^th century, provides an overview and a synthesis of the creation and development of agrarian culture, i.e. of farming methods and techniques and the related ways of life of people in Slovakia (so called “humanization of natural environment”). Slovakia is seen here as part of two specific economic-cultural regions: the southern part of the country, together with Austria, Hungary, Serbia and Croatia, belongs to the Pannonia-Potisc area, while the northern, mountaineous and sub-mountaineous part belongs to the Carpathian zone, along with northern Moravia, southern Poland, the Ukraine and part of the Balkans. While the former of these two areas has undergone a relatively fast development, the latter has for a long time preserved its archaic forms of life, since its natural conditions are less favourable compared to the first area.

Abstract: The study attempts to explain the term “folk (rural) art”, its types and its history, enriched by elements of gothic, renaissance and baroque art. It compares the salient features of Slovak folk art within the European context and identifies its specific traits as well as its independent position in Europe.

Abstract: The text captures the „career“ of halusky with bryndza sheep cheese as a Slovak national dish from the first mention of it dating back to the 15^th century until today. It describes this dish, long considered as unhealthy, as traditional food of mountain shepherds, who had to rely on sheep products only. It is only in the middle of the 20^th century that halusky become an internationally renowned culinary hit, due to a boost in tourism in Slovakia as well as to their sensational success at the Montreal world exhibition in 1967. The dish has become very popular and sought-after also as a result of the decline in sheep breeding following the transformation of farms into cooperatives. Halusky is thus an example of a dish which has become a „national speciality“, in a way similar to other national cuisines – more for emotional than for purely rational reasons.

Abstract: The text describes individual types of clothes as they were created throughout history and worn in the Slovak society and discusses how the history of clothing might be used in history teaching.

Abstract: The text analyzes both the music and the main topics of carols. It focuses on different origins of Christmas songs (folk carols, carols written by composers), preserved in the oral tradition. Given the complexity of the tunes, it is the lyrics, i.e. the topics, which the author uses to classify the carols analyzed (ca. 1500 carols) into different types. Three basic groupings of carols have emerged based on the texts: worldly carols and the so-called wishes; carols with religious themes and apocrypha texts; pastoral carols (mostly from the Baroque period which in Slovakia continues into classicism).

The analysis has shown that there is a clear demarcation line between Western and Eastern Europe running through the territories of Slovakia, Poland and Hungary. It could be identified on the basis of pastoral themes as an important part of Christmas celebrations. This demarcation line is closely linked to the theological perception of prevailing topics of Christmas festivities in the Western and in the Eastern (nowadays Greek-Catholic and Orthodox) Christian Churches. While in Slovakia this border is relatively clear-cut and coincides with the Ruthenians ethnic, in Hungary it is less well defined and corresponds less closely to ethnic borders.

Abstract: The study compares the construction of two new „socialist“ towns – Nová Dubnica nad Váhom in Slovakia and Velenje in Slovenia in the fifties of the 20^th century. Both towns originated from little rural towns and were built according to rational urban plans, in connection with the creation of an industrial base of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. In the case of Velenje, the growth of the town was connected with mining industry, while the rise of Dubnica was linked to the development of arms industry. Both projects, albeit in a different manner, also reflected the political and ideological situation of the time.

Abstract: The authors describe the interpretation patterns of contemporary Slovene history, in particular of WWII, as they were formed from the nineties of the 20^th century. In comparison to other socialist countries, in Slovenia the conditions for analyzing this traumatic period of history were more favourable, since the „agony“ of Yugoslavia after J. Broz-Tito died in 1980 made it possible to approach at least some of the thorny issues.

The division of today’s Slovenia between Italy, Germany, Croatia and Hungary, together with the pre-war political constellation of the country, sheds a special light on the issue of resistance, opposition and collaboration. This is why the study focuses not only on the period of occupation but also on the pre-war period. The history in the end culminated by the „clash of two worlds“, in which the Communist world prevailed, again with certain specific features of its own (not totally dissimilar to the situation in the Czechoslovak Republic at the time). After Slovenia became independent, two interpretation patterns have emerged in its historiography – a rightist one, claiming that the Communist revolution won, and a leftist one, which claims that to identify the struggle for national freedom with the Communist revolution is not acceptable. Some of the leftist historians admit that the Communists used this struggle as an instrument for reaching their own goals.

Abstract: The debate concerning the course and consequences of WWII is far from being over in Poland. It is not only the subject of historical research but also of political instrumentalization. It is especially due to the fact that in the end of the thirties of the 20^th century Poland fell victim to two totalitarian regimes at the same time. The study observes the different interpretations offered today and identifies the challenges of teaching them to students, which may be summarized as follows: providing reliable information, not avoiding sensitive and complex issues, informing on different evaluation of the events, unveiling manipulators who use history only to reach their immediate goals without being truly interested in it.

Abstract: The study deals with Slovak children’s literature, especially with magazines from the period of the Slovak state and the years 1948–1956, examining it as an important teaching material and source of history. It does so from the perspective of today’s children, i.e. by trying to capture the information which can be understood by children nowadays and can help them understand the past. It offers a different look at history compared to the traditional historical approach which is often too abstract for the children’s mind.

Abstract: The study analyzes sports (soccer) environment of inter-war Bratislava, which had numerous multicultural specificities. It provides examples of national and club rivalry between the individual Bratislava football clubs as well as opportunities for cooperation. The football pitches of Bratislava saw the rise and development of new collective identities, often bearing purely political features, concerning especially the newly created Czechoslovakia and its relationship to Hungary, as well as the relation of the Slovaks and the Hungarians to the Republic.

Abstract: The study summarizes the condition of sports in Central Europe from the end of the 19^th century onwards. It points out political factors influencing sport and their manifestations in the changing political constellation of central Europe. It also describes different social and cultural aspects of the environment, from which most sportsmen came and which they were entering, as well as economic conditions of sport.

Abstract: The study analyzes the most frequent topics and methods used in history teaching at Hungarian language schools in Slovakia. It argues against the use of great national narrative in history teaching. It also lists various advantages of history teaching based on primary and/or secondary sources, on multiperspectivity or controversial accounts. The author focuses on the special situation of schools that use Hungarian language as specific centres where multilinguism and multiperspectivity are common. The author also argues for modernisation of history teaching methods in Slovakia in general, quoting several experts on history didactics, such as Bodo von Borries, Viliam Kratochvíl, Július Alberty, Bernard Porter, György Jakab. His point is very much based on a statement quoted from a study written by Robert Stradling: ,,It is also important to understand why multiperspectivity also requires an analysis of how the different perspectives relate to each other and a recognition that each perspective is part of something bigger: a more complex but also more complete picture.”

Abstract: The study accentuates certain „pictures“ of the past, which contain important elements of the industrial Central European society in the last two centuries and which should not be dwarfed by the much more commonly treated political and nationality issues. A colourful spectrum of historic reality is a suitable topic for developing historical thinking and cultural reproduction. During the 19^th and 20^th centuries, the face of Europe has changed significantly. The old feudal society and its attributes were slowly disappearing, while new civil structures and clear-cut identities were created. The industrial revolution was in full swing. Central Europe was then a true macro region. Even today it is one functional unit for our history analysis and teaching goals.

Abstract: The study summarizes the results of a survey carried out at the start of the 2008/2009 school year at Czech secondary schools (grammar schools and professional schools). It concludes that the students? knowledge concerning the Nazi ideology, anti-Semitism and holocaust could certainly be improved, but on the whole it is quite satisfactory. This is so mainly thanks to the teachers, better textbooks as well as to a large number of highly-motivating projects, e.g. „Neighbours who disappeared“ (One world, Man in need). However, the rare mentions of the so-called „Auschwitz lies“ should be duly taken into account and discussed at history lessons.